What If Cicero Became Emperor?

The Actual History

Marcus Tullius Cicero (106-43 BCE) stands as one of the most influential figures of the late Roman Republic, renowned for his extraordinary oratorical skills, philosophical writings, and political career. Born to an equestrian family in Arpinum, about 100 kilometers southeast of Rome, Cicero was not a member of the traditional patrician elite but rose through talent and determination to the highest offices of the Republic.

After receiving an excellent education in rhetoric, philosophy, and law, Cicero embarked on a legal career that quickly brought him fame. His successful defense of Sextus Roscius against a politically motivated murder charge in 80 BCE established his reputation as a fearless advocate willing to challenge powerful figures. This case launched his political career, which followed the traditional Roman cursus honorum (sequence of public offices).

Cicero's political ascent reached its apex in 63 BCE when he was elected consul, the highest regular magistracy in the Roman Republic. During his consulship, he faced his greatest challenge: the Catilinarian conspiracy, a plot led by the disaffected aristocrat Lucius Sergius Catilina to overthrow the government. Through a series of brilliant speeches and decisive action, Cicero exposed the conspiracy and ordered the execution of five conspirators without trial, invoking emergency powers. While initially hailed as the "Father of his Country" for saving the Republic, this decision would later be used against him by political opponents who argued he had violated the right of Roman citizens to a trial.

The political landscape of the late Republic was dominated by the growing power of military commanders and the formation of informal political alliances. In 60 BCE, the First Triumvirate—a political alliance between Julius Caesar, Pompey the Great, and Marcus Licinius Crassus—was formed, effectively controlling Roman politics. Cicero, committed to republican principles and the traditional constitution, found himself increasingly marginalized. He refused Caesar's invitation to join the Triumvirate, seeing it as a threat to the Republic's institutions.

Cicero's opposition to the Triumvirate led to his exile in 58 BCE, engineered by his enemy Publius Clodius Pulcher with the tacit approval of the triumvirs. Though he was recalled the following year, his political influence had been severely diminished. As the Republic descended into civil war between Caesar and Pompey after Crassus's death, Cicero reluctantly sided with Pompey, whom he saw as the lesser threat to republican government.

After Caesar's victory and establishment as dictator, Cicero withdrew from public life and focused on writing philosophical works. Following Caesar's assassination in 44 BCE, Cicero returned to the political arena, delivering his famous Philippics against Mark Antony, whom he viewed as the new threat to the Republic. He placed his hopes in Caesar's young heir, Octavian (later Augustus), believing he could be influenced to restore republican government.

This proved to be Cicero's final miscalculation. When Octavian formed the Second Triumvirate with Antony and Lepidus, Cicero was placed on their proscription list—a death sentence. On December 7, 43 BCE, he was captured and executed while attempting to flee Italy. His hands and head were cut off and displayed in the Roman Forum, a gruesome end to one of Rome's greatest statesmen.

Cicero never achieved the supreme power that Caesar and Augustus did. Instead, he remained committed to the republican system of shared and limited power, opposing the concentration of authority in any individual's hands. His extensive writings on political theory, ethics, and philosophy—including "De Republica," "De Legibus," and "De Officiis"—articulated a vision of government based on natural law, mixed constitution, and civic virtue that would influence political thought for centuries.

The Republic that Cicero had fought to preserve did not survive long after his death. By 27 BCE, Octavian, now styled Augustus, had established the Principate, effectively transforming the Republic into the Roman Empire while maintaining a facade of republican institutions. The republican system of distributed power that Cicero had championed was replaced by a de facto monarchy that would govern Rome for the next five centuries.

Cicero's legacy lies not in political success—he ultimately failed to save the Republic—but in his intellectual contributions. His philosophical works preserved and transmitted Greek thought to the Latin-speaking world and beyond. His political writings influenced the development of natural law theory, constitutionalism, and republicanism, inspiring thinkers from St. Augustine to John Locke, Montesquieu, and America's Founding Fathers. His oratorical and literary style set the standard for Latin prose and shaped Western literary tradition. Though he never became Rome's ruler, Cicero's impact on Western civilization has endured far longer than the empire that emerged from the Republic's collapse.

The Point of Divergence

What if Cicero, rather than being marginalized and eventually executed, had managed to gain political supremacy in Rome? What if, instead of Caesar and Augustus establishing a thinly veiled monarchy, Cicero had succeeded in implementing his vision of a reformed republic or perhaps even become a different kind of princeps himself?

In this alternate timeline, let's imagine that Cicero's political fortunes took a different turn during the turbulent final decades of the Roman Republic. Perhaps his handling of the Catilinarian conspiracy in 63 BCE earned him not just temporary acclaim but enduring popular support and the loyalty of key military leaders. Or maybe he made different strategic choices when faced with the First Triumvirate, finding ways to undermine the alliance of Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus before they could consolidate their power.

Alternatively, we might envision that after Caesar's assassination in 44 BCE, Cicero successfully positioned himself as the Republic's savior rather than backing Octavian. With his unmatched oratorical skills and reputation for principled leadership, he might have rallied the Senate, the people, and enough military support to outmaneuver both Antony and Octavian in the power struggle that followed Caesar's death.

In this scenario, Cicero would have achieved what historically eluded him: the power to implement his political vision for Rome. As a philosophical statesman deeply influenced by Greek political thought, particularly Aristotle's concept of the mixed constitution, Cicero might have established a reformed republican system that balanced the interests of the aristocracy (optimates) and the people (populares) while strengthening institutional checks against individual ambition.

Alternatively, recognizing the Republic's need for stronger executive leadership after decades of instability, Cicero might have reluctantly accepted a position similar to Augustus's principate but shaped by his republican principles and philosophical commitments. This "Ciceronian principate" would have differed significantly from the Augustan model, perhaps maintaining more genuine power for the Senate and establishing clearer constitutional limits on the princeps's authority.

This alternate history explores how Rome and, by extension, Western civilization might have developed if Cicero's political philosophy had shaped the transition from Republic to Empire. Would his emphasis on natural law, civic virtue, and constitutional balance have created a more stable political system? How would his deep engagement with Greek philosophy have influenced Roman culture and governance? And how might the subsequent history of Europe and the Mediterranean world have unfolded under the influence of a Ciceronian rather than Augustan model of leadership?

Immediate Aftermath

Political Restructuring

If Cicero had achieved political supremacy in Rome, his first priority would have been institutional reform to address the Republic's structural weaknesses:

Constitutional Reforms: Drawing on his political writings in "De Republica" and "De Legibus," Cicero would likely have implemented reforms to restore balance between the Senate, magistrates, and popular assemblies. He might have formalized the unwritten constitution, creating clearer rules for the exercise of power and emergency authority.
Senate Reform: Cicero would have purged the Senate of corrupt members while expanding it to include worthy equestrians (his own class), creating a more meritocratic body. He might have established stricter qualifications for membership and clearer procedures for senatorial business.
Electoral Reform: To address the endemic corruption in Roman elections, Cicero might have implemented stricter laws against bribery (ambitus) and reformed the voting system to reduce the influence of wealth while still maintaining the traditional hierarchical structure.
Provincial Administration: Having served as governor of Cilicia, where he prided himself on honest administration, Cicero would likely have reformed provincial governance to reduce exploitation by governors. This might have included longer terms for governors (reducing the pressure to extract wealth quickly) and stronger legal protections for provincials.

Military Affairs

Cicero's relationship with the military would have been crucial to his success and presented significant challenges:

Civilian Control: Unlike Caesar or Pompey, Cicero was not a military commander. He would have needed to establish firm civilian control over the legions, perhaps by implementing new oaths of loyalty to the state rather than to individual generals.
Military Reforms: To address the problem of soldiers' loyalty to their generals rather than the state, Cicero might have reformed military service and veterans' benefits, ensuring that the state, not individual commanders, provided for veterans through land grants and pensions.
Strategic Priorities: Cicero would likely have pursued a less expansionist foreign policy than Caesar, focusing on consolidating control over existing territories rather than conquering new ones. His approach to frontier defense might have emphasized diplomacy and strategic alliances alongside military deterrence.
Relationship with Commanders: Cicero would have needed to maintain good relationships with capable military leaders while preventing any from becoming too powerful. He might have implemented rotation of commands and divided large provinces to prevent the concentration of military power.

Economic and Social Measures

Cicero's economic and social policies would have reflected his moderate conservative outlook:

Land Distribution: While not as radical as populist reformers like the Gracchi, Cicero recognized the need to address land inequality. He might have implemented a moderate land distribution program for veterans and the urban poor, perhaps using public lands in the provinces rather than confiscating private property in Italy.
Debt Relief: The crushing debt that affected many Romans might have been addressed through moderate measures such as regulated interest rates and partial debt forgiveness rather than the complete debt cancellation that radicals demanded.
Grain Distribution: Cicero was critical of free grain distributions as encouraging dependency, but recognized their necessity. He might have reformed rather than abolished the system, perhaps targeting it more narrowly to the truly needy or coupling it with public works requirements.
Tax Reform: Having witnessed the abuses of the publicani (tax farmers) in the provinces, Cicero might have implemented tax reforms to ensure more equitable and less corrupt collection, potentially moving toward direct collection by state officials in some areas.

Cultural and Intellectual Impact

Cicero's leadership would have had profound cultural and intellectual implications:

Philosophical Governance: As a philosopher-statesman, Cicero would have brought philosophical principles directly into governance. His Stoic-influenced concepts of natural law and human dignity might have shaped legislation and judicial decisions.
Educational Emphasis: Cicero's belief in the importance of a broad education combining rhetoric, philosophy, law, and history would have influenced Roman educational practices, potentially leading to more formal support for higher education.
Literary Patronage: Already a literary figure himself, Cicero would likely have patronized literature, history, and philosophy, potentially ushering in a "Ciceronian age" of Latin literature different from the Augustan age that historically emerged.
Religious Policy: While respectful of traditional Roman religion, Cicero was influenced by philosophical skepticism regarding literal interpretations of myths. His religious policy might have emphasized religion's social utility while allowing for more philosophical interpretations among the educated elite.

Reactions from Different Factions

Various groups within Roman society would have responded differently to Cicero's ascendancy:

Optimates (Conservative Aristocrats): Traditional senators might have initially supported Cicero as one of their own, but some would have grown concerned about his reforms and inclusion of equestrians in governance.
Populares (Populist Faction): Those advocating for the common people might have viewed Cicero with suspicion given his historically conservative leanings, but his moderate reforms might have won over some pragmatic populares.
Equestrian Order: Cicero's own class of wealthy non-senators involved in business would likely have strongly supported his leadership, seeing opportunities for greater political influence while maintaining economic privileges.
Urban Plebs: The common people of Rome might have been initially skeptical of Cicero, who had opposed popular measures in the past, but could have been won over by moderate economic reforms and effective governance.
Provincial Subjects: Having experienced both Roman exploitation and Cicero's own fair governance as a provincial governor, provincial elites might have cautiously welcomed his leadership, especially if it brought more equitable administration.

Immediate Challenges

Cicero would have faced significant immediate challenges:

Legitimacy Establishment: Unlike Augustus, who could claim to be Caesar's heir, Cicero would have needed to establish the legitimacy of his position through legal means and popular support rather than hereditary or divine claims.
Opposition Management: Powerful figures like Mark Antony, Octavian, or other military commanders would not have simply accepted Cicero's authority. He would have needed to neutralize these threats through some combination of alliance, incorporation into his government, or (as a last resort) elimination.
Military Loyalty: Ensuring the loyalty of the legions without a strong military background himself would have been perhaps Cicero's greatest challenge, requiring careful alliance-building with trusted commanders.
Economic Stabilization: After years of civil war, the Roman economy would have needed stabilization through currency reform, trade restoration, and addressing the needs of veterans and the displaced.

The immediate aftermath of Cicero's rise to power would have represented a critical juncture in Roman history. While facing enormous challenges, Cicero would have had the opportunity to implement a vision of governance informed by philosophical principles and practical experience—a rare combination in ancient politics. His success or failure would have depended on his ability to translate his political ideals into practical policies while navigating the treacherous waters of late Republican politics.

Long-term Impact

Political Evolution

A Ciceronian transformation of the Roman state would have created a fundamentally different trajectory for Western political development:

Constitutional Principate: Rather than Augustus's model of de facto monarchy behind a republican facade, Cicero might have established a genuine constitutional principate—a system where the princeps held significant but clearly defined and limited powers within a constitutional framework. This might have evolved into a form of constitutional monarchy or a presidential republic rather than the absolutist tendencies that emerged in the historical empire.
Codified Constitution: Cicero's legal mind might have led him to formally codify Rome's previously unwritten constitution, establishing clearer rules for governance. This could have created a tradition of written constitutionalism that would influence later political development throughout Europe and beyond.
Institutional Balance: Following his philosophical commitment to the mixed constitution, Cicero would have worked to maintain a genuine balance of power between the princeps, Senate, magistrates, and popular assemblies. This balance might have proven more sustainable than the historical concentration of power in the emperor's hands.
Succession Planning: One of the Roman Empire's greatest weaknesses was its lack of clear succession rules, leading to frequent civil wars. Cicero, aware of this danger, might have established more formal succession procedures, perhaps creating a system of adopted heirs chosen for merit (as in the "Five Good Emperors" period) rather than biological succession.

Philosophical Governance

Cicero's deep engagement with philosophy would have influenced governance in unprecedented ways:

Natural Law Tradition: Cicero's concept of natural law—universal principles of justice discoverable by reason—would have been directly applied to Roman jurisprudence. This might have accelerated the development of the ius gentium (law of nations) and concepts of universal human rights.
Civic Virtue Emphasis: Ciceronian governance would have emphasized civic virtue and public service as essential to the state's health. Educational and cultural institutions might have been oriented toward cultivating these virtues in citizens, particularly the governing classes.
Practical Ethics: Cicero's practical approach to Stoic ethics, emphasizing duties to fellow citizens and the state, might have created a different ethical framework for Roman governance—one that balanced pragmatism with principle rather than the realpolitik that often characterized imperial rule.
Intellectual Leadership: As a philosopher-statesman, Cicero would have established a model of leadership that valued intellectual accomplishment alongside political and military success. This might have influenced the qualities sought in subsequent leaders and the education provided to potential rulers.

Cultural and Intellectual Developments

The cultural landscape under Ciceronian influence would have differed markedly from the Augustan and imperial cultures that historically emerged:

Literary Golden Age: While the Augustan Age produced magnificent literature, a Ciceronian era might have encouraged different literary forms and themes. Historical writing, philosophical dialogues, and political oratory might have received greater emphasis than epic poetry celebrating imperial glory.
Educational System: Cicero's educational ideals, emphasizing a broad humanistic education combining Greek and Roman elements, might have been institutionalized. This could have led to earlier development of something resembling the liberal arts tradition.
Philosophical Eclecticism: Cicero's approach of drawing from multiple philosophical schools rather than adhering rigidly to one might have established a more eclectic intellectual tradition in Rome, potentially allowing for greater innovation and synthesis of ideas.
Religious Evolution: Cicero's philosophical approach to religion, respecting traditional practices while interpreting them philosophically, might have created a different relationship between philosophy and religion in Western culture—perhaps more similar to the philosophical religiosity of some Greek traditions than the faith-centered approach that developed under Christianity.

Economic and Social Structure

The socioeconomic structure of the Roman world might have evolved differently:

Middle Class Development: Cicero's own background and sympathies might have led to policies favoring the development of a stronger "middle class" of small landowners, merchants, and professionals, potentially creating a more balanced economic structure than the extreme inequality that characterized much of Roman imperial history.
Provincial Integration: Cicero's more equitable approach to provincial governance might have accelerated the integration of provincial elites into Roman society, potentially creating a more genuinely integrated empire rather than one divided between Roman citizens and subjects.
Slavery Practices: While unlikely to have abolished slavery (which was fundamental to the ancient economy), Cicero's philosophical humanism might have led to more humane treatment of slaves and perhaps easier paths to manumission, gradually modifying the institution.
Urban Development: Cicero's more modest personal style compared to Augustus might have led to different patterns of urban development—perhaps emphasizing practical civic infrastructure and educational institutions over monumental architecture glorifying the ruler.

Military and Imperial Policy

Rome's approach to its empire and military affairs would have reflected Ciceronian priorities:

Defensive Orientation: Unlike Caesar's expansionism, Cicero would likely have pursued a more defensive imperial policy, focusing on securing and developing existing territories rather than constant conquest. This might have created a more stable and sustainable imperial frontier.
Provincial Autonomy: Cicero might have granted greater autonomy to provinces, particularly those with developed civic traditions like Greece and parts of Asia Minor. This could have created a more federal structure that might have proven more resilient in the long term.
Military Professionalism: To address the problem of armies loyal to generals rather than the state, Cicero might have developed a more professional military with institutional loyalty, potentially avoiding the cycle of civil wars that plagued the empire.
Diplomatic Emphasis: Given his background as an orator and negotiator rather than a general, Cicero might have emphasized diplomacy over military force in foreign relations, potentially developing more sophisticated diplomatic institutions and practices.

Religious Development

The religious landscape would have evolved differently under Ciceronian influence:

Philosophical Religion: Cicero's approach to religion combined respect for traditional practices with philosophical interpretation. This might have led to a more philosophical evolution of Roman religion, perhaps similar to how Neo-Platonism developed historically.
Different Response to Christianity: When Christianity emerged, a Ciceronian Rome might have responded differently than the historical empire did. Cicero's principles of religious tolerance combined with philosophical skepticism might have led to a policy of accommodation rather than persecution, potentially changing Christianity's development.
Intellectual Monotheism: The philosophical monotheism that appealed to many educated Romans might have developed more fully within the traditional religious framework, potentially creating a different synthesis than the Christian-pagan divide that emerged historically.
Civic Religion: Cicero emphasized religion's role in maintaining social cohesion and civic virtue. A religious system evolving under his influence might have maintained stronger connections to civic participation and ethics rather than focusing on personal salvation.

Legacy and Historical Memory

The way later generations understood Roman history would have been transformed:

Republican Continuity: Rather than being seen as the end of the Republic and beginning of the Empire, Cicero's era might have been remembered as a successful reform and continuation of republican principles in a new form. The sharp Republic-Empire divide in our historical understanding might never have existed.
Different Exemplars: Instead of Caesar and Augustus serving as the models for later rulers, Cicero would have established a different template for leadership—one emphasizing philosophical wisdom, oratorical skill, and constitutional governance rather than military conquest and dynastic power.
Philosophical Politics: The tradition of philosopher-statesmen might have become more central to Western political culture, potentially creating different expectations for political leadership throughout subsequent history.
Constitutional Tradition: A successful Ciceronian model might have established a stronger and earlier tradition of constitutionalism and limited government in Western political thought, potentially accelerating the development of concepts that historically emerged much later.

Counterfactual Considerations

While imagining this alternate timeline, several important factors must be considered:

Practical Challenges: Cicero was a brilliant orator and thinker but sometimes lacked political courage and decisiveness. For this scenario to work, we must imagine a Cicero who overcame these limitations or found ways to compensate for them through alliances with more decisive figures.
Military Reality: The late Republic was dominated by military men, and Cicero lacked military experience. His ability to control the legions would have required either exceptional political skill or reliable military allies committed to civilian leadership.
Structural Pressures: Many historians argue that the Republic's transformation into the Empire was driven by structural factors beyond any individual's control—the challenges of governing a vast territory with institutions designed for a city-state. Even a Ciceronian system would have faced these pressures.
Individual vs. Institutional Change: While focusing on Cicero as an individual, we must consider that lasting change would have required institutional transformation. Cicero's success would have depended on whether he could create institutions that outlasted his personal leadership.

In this alternate timeline, the history of Rome—and by extension, of Western civilization—would have followed a fundamentally different path. The sharp break between Republic and Empire that defines our understanding of Roman history might never have occurred. Instead, a reformed republican system incorporating philosophical principles and pragmatic adaptations might have evolved, potentially creating a more stable and balanced political model that could have influenced subsequent political development throughout Europe and beyond. The philosophical and constitutional principles that Cicero articulated, which historically influenced later thinkers but were not implemented in his lifetime, might have shaped Western civilization directly through their practical application in a Ciceronian Rome.

Expert Opinions

Dr. Marcus Tullius Varro, Professor of Roman Political History at Oxford University, suggests:

"Had Cicero achieved political supremacy in Rome, the most fascinating aspect would have been the implementation of his political philosophy in practical governance. Cicero wasn't merely a politician with ambitions; he was a sophisticated political theorist who had deeply engaged with Greek philosophical traditions, particularly Aristotle's concept of the mixed constitution and Stoic ideas of natural law. His writings in 'De Republica' and 'De Legibus' outline a vision of governance that balances aristocratic, democratic, and monarchical elements while being grounded in principles of justice discoverable through reason. A Ciceronian transformation of the Roman state might have created something resembling a constitutional principate—maintaining a strong executive needed to govern a vast empire while embedding that executive within a framework of law and institutional checks. This would have differed dramatically from Augustus's model, which maintained republican facades while gradually concentrating real power in the emperor's hands. The most intriguing possibility is that Cicero might have established a genuine tradition of constitutional governance that could have evolved into something resembling modern constitutional systems far earlier in Western history. Rather than the long detour through absolute monarchy that characterized much of European history, we might have seen a more direct development of limited government principles from Roman times forward."

Dr. Julia Antonia, historian of Roman intellectual culture at the University of California, Berkeley, notes:

"Cicero's potential impact on Roman cultural and intellectual life cannot be overstated. Unlike Caesar, who was certainly educated but primarily a military man, or Augustus, who was a brilliant political operator but not an intellectual, Cicero was one of Rome's leading thinkers. His leadership would have represented something unprecedented: a philosopher-statesman in the Greek tradition actually implementing his ideas. The cultural program under a Ciceronian regime would likely have differed significantly from the Augustan cultural revolution we know historically. While Augustus used literature and art primarily to legitimize his rule and create a new Roman mythology centered on his family and achievements, Cicero might have encouraged a more philosophical and civic-minded cultural flowering. His own literary output—dialogues, letters, orations, and philosophical treatises—suggests the forms he valued. We might have seen greater emphasis on rational discourse, historical analysis, and ethical inquiry rather than the epic celebrations of Roman destiny that characterized Virgil's Aeneid. Cicero's deep engagement with Greek thought while maintaining Roman identity might also have created a more balanced cultural synthesis between these traditions, potentially avoiding some of the loss of Greek philosophical and scientific knowledge that occurred during the later empire. The educational ideal he outlined in 'De Oratore'—the broadly educated statesman skilled in philosophy, history, law, and rhetoric—might have become more firmly established as the model for Roman elites."

Dr. Claudia Lucretia, expert in comparative ancient legal systems at the Sorbonne, offers:

"The legal implications of Cicero's leadership would have been revolutionary. As both a practicing lawyer and legal theorist, Cicero had a sophisticated understanding of Roman law's strengths and weaknesses. His concept of natural law—universal principles of justice accessible to human reason—provided a philosophical foundation that could have transformed Roman jurisprudence. While Roman law did develop impressively under the Empire, it remained fundamentally positivistic, based on the emperor's will and accumulated precedent rather than explicit philosophical principles. A Ciceronian legal revolution might have more explicitly incorporated natural law concepts, potentially accelerating the development of universal principles of justice and even notions of inherent human rights. His emphasis on the spirit rather than merely the letter of the law, evident in his legal speeches, might have created a different balance in Roman legal interpretation. Additionally, Cicero's experience as a provincial governor, where he prided himself on fair treatment of provincials, suggests he might have reformed the relationship between Roman law and local legal systems in the provinces, perhaps creating a more equitable integration that respected local traditions while establishing universal principles. This could have addressed one of the empire's long-term weaknesses: the juridical divide between citizens and non-citizens, which was only partially resolved by Caracalla's universal citizenship grant in 212 CE, long after it might have strengthened imperial cohesion."