What If the Mongols Had Conquered Europe?

The Actual History

In the early 13th century, the Mongol Empire under Genghis Khan and his successors created the largest contiguous land empire in history. After conquering much of Asia, the Mongols turned their attention to Europe. Under the leadership of Batu Khan and General Subutai, Mongol forces invaded Eastern Europe in 1237, conquering Russia, Poland, and Hungary.

By 1241, Mongol armies had defeated European forces at the battles of Legnica and Mohi, and were poised to advance into Austria, Germany, and Italy. Western Europe appeared defenseless against the Mongol war machine.

However, in December 1241, the Great Khan Ögedei died in Mongolia. Following Mongol custom, Batu Khan and other Mongol leaders returned to Karakorum for the election of a new Great Khan. The Mongol forces withdrew from Central Europe, never to return in such strength. While Russia remained under Mongol rule for centuries as part of the Golden Horde, Western Europe was spared.

The Point of Divergence

What if Ögedei Khan had not died in December 1241, but had instead lived another decade? Without the need to return to Mongolia for a kurultai (leadership election), Batu Khan and Subutai could have continued their European campaign, potentially conquering much of the continent.

Immediate Aftermath

The Fall of Western Europe

With no interruption to their campaign, the Mongol armies would have continued westward in spring 1242:

Holy Roman Empire: The divided German states would have fallen one by one, lacking the unified leadership to resist the Mongol tactics.
Italy: Northern Italian city-states, despite their wealth, would have been vulnerable to the mobile Mongol forces. Rome and the Papal States would likely have been conquered by 1243-1244.
France: After securing Germany and Italy, Mongol forces would have moved into France, potentially conquering Paris by 1245.
Iberian Peninsula: The Christian kingdoms of Spain and Portugal might have faced Mongol invasions by 1246-1247, though the mountainous terrain would have presented challenges.
British Isles: England, Scotland, and Ireland might have been spared direct conquest due to the English Channel, though they would have likely become tributary states.

European Resistance and Adaptation

Unlike in Asia, Europe's fragmented political landscape and geographic features would have presented unique challenges:

Castle fortifications would have slowed but not stopped Mongol advances
Guerrilla warfare in mountainous regions like the Alps, Pyrenees, and Scottish Highlands would have continued
Some island territories like Sicily, Sardinia, or Ireland might have maintained independence longer
The Byzantine Empire, already weakened, would have likely become a Mongol vassal state

Long-term Impact

Political Transformation

The Mongol conquest would have fundamentally altered European political development:

The Holy Roman Empire would have collapsed completely
The Catholic Church would have lost much of its political power, with the Pope potentially becoming a Mongol appointee
European feudalism would have been replaced by the Mongol administrative system in conquered territories
New hybrid political structures would have emerged combining Mongol and European elements

Cultural and Religious Changes

The Mongol policy of religious tolerance would have created a very different religious landscape:

Christianity would have remained, but with diminished political influence
Islam, Buddhism, and shamanic practices would have gained footholds in Europe much earlier
The Protestant Reformation would never have occurred in its historical form
Universities might have become centers for knowledge exchange between European, Middle Eastern, and Asian traditions

Economic Integration

The Mongol Empire excelled at facilitating trade across its territories:

The Silk Road would have extended directly into Western Europe
European cities would have been integrated into the Mongol trading network earlier
Technology transfer between Asia and Europe would have accelerated
The Black Death might have spread even more rapidly through a unified Eurasian trade network

Technological Development

Under Mongol rule, technological exchange would have accelerated:

Chinese innovations like printing, gunpowder weapons, and nautical technologies would have reached Europe earlier
European shipbuilding and navigation might have combined with Chinese techniques sooner
Agricultural techniques from across the empire would have been exchanged

The Renaissance and Age of Exploration

The Renaissance might have occurred differently, with more direct access to Eastern knowledge rather than rediscovery of classical texts
Maritime exploration might have been delayed as Europe focused on continental integration
Alternatively, Mongol sponsorship might have encouraged earlier and more extensive exploration

Expert Opinions

Dr. Timothy May, Professor of Central Eurasian History at the University of North Georgia, suggests:

"A successful Mongol conquest of Europe would have integrated the continent into a Eurasian economic system centuries before globalization. While initially devastating, the Pax Mongolica would have created unprecedented opportunities for cultural and technological exchange. European development would have taken a radically different path, potentially accelerating in some areas while being suppressed in others."

Dr. Isabelle Chen, specialist in comparative medieval history at the Sorbonne, notes:

"The Mongol conquest would have flattened many of the political and religious hierarchies that defined medieval Europe. The continent might have experienced earlier religious pluralism and cultural exchange, but at the cost of indigenous political development. The nation-states that shaped modern Europe would never have formed in the same way, and concepts like the Renaissance and Enlightenment would have emerged in entirely different contexts, if at all."